Executive Summary

1. Water inequality overview in Kibera’s informal urban environment

Kibera, located in the southwest of Nairobi, Kenya, is one of the largest informal settlements in Africa. While Nairobi as a whole is a rapidly growing metropolitan city of approximately 6 million people, more than 60% of its residents live in informal settlements where access to basic infrastructure remains limited. Within this context, Kibera occupies a small area of roughly 2.5 km² but is home to an estimated 170,000 to 270,000 residents, resulting in extremely high population densities exceeding 80,000 people per square kilometer.

Figure 1. The map of the main water sources and treatment facilities that serve Nairobi. Nairobi is dependent on the four surface water sources lying outside the county. These sources will not be sufficient to meet the county’s growing population. The Kabete treatment plant within the Nairobi boundry receives water from the four dams for treatement and distribution throughout the city while the Gigiri reservoir receives water from Ndakini dam treated in the Ngethu’ treatment Plant.

Figure 2. The pressure points map of Kabete and Gigiri & the location of Kibera within Nairobi. The positions of the reservoirs are not accurate. Here Wilson reservoir is the Nairobi Dam.

Nairobi’s water supply system largely depends on surface water from the Upper Tana River Basin, including major reservoirs such as Ndakaini, Sasumua, and Ruiru (Figure 1). These sources account for the majority of the city’s water supply, with the Ndakaini system alone contributing approximately 84%. Groundwater plays a smaller but increasingly stressed role due to pressures from over-extraction and contamination. However, access to this system is uneven. While formally planned areas are connected to piped networks, only about 71% of the city has access to formal supply (Oiro et al., 2020), leaving many residents dependent on alternative sources such as communal water points, boreholes, or water vendors.

In Kibera, this uneven distribution is particularly visible. Water is typically accessed through shared taps or purchased from vendors, often at higher prices and with uncertain quality. At the same time, sanitation infrastructure remains limited, and wastewater is frequently discharged into open drainage systems, contributing to contamination risks. Seasonal rainfall further complicates this system, as heavy rains during the long and short rainy seasons can lead to flooding and the spread of pollutants.

These conditions reveal a fragmented and highly unequal water system in which supply, access, and quality are unevenly distributed. Understanding this broader urban context is essential for developing solutions that are both technically feasible and responsive to the realities of everyday water use in Kibera.

2. Existing Conditions

2.1. Interconnected Water Challenges in Kibera

Figure 3. The web diagram of interconnected water challenges in Kibera.

Before looking at the details, it is helpful to step back and understand the overall structure of the problem. In Kibera, water-related challenges can be broadly grouped into four dimensions: flooding, water scarcity, water quality, and governance. These are not separate issues. They are deeply interconnected and constantly reinforce one another.

This interconnectedness is especially important in Kibera, a large informal settlement. Limited formal infrastructure, high population density, and fragmented service provision put everyday systems such as drainage, sanitation, and water supply under pressure. As a result, shocks like heavy rainfall or supply interruptions do not remain isolated events. They quickly spread across systems and affect multiple aspects of daily life.

Here Figure 3 visualizes this cycle. It shows how flooding, scarcity, poor water quality, and weak governance interact with one another. When one problem worsens, it often triggers or intensifies the others.

For example, flooding is not only about too much water on the ground. In Kibera, floodwater can overflow drains and sanitation systems, spreading wastewater and fecal contamination into homes, streets, and water sources. This increases disease risk and makes already vulnerable households even more exposed during the next flood. Because Kibera is located in the Ngong River Basin and near the Nairobi Dam, seasonal rainfall can create serious pluvial and riverine flood risks. Recent flood events have caused displacement, damaged infrastructure, disrupted schools and healthcare facilities, and contaminated sanitation systems.

Water scarcity creates another layer of pressure. Many families face challenges such as delaying washing, skipping baths, reducing meals, or spending long hours waiting for water (Crow & Odaba, 2009; Kim et al., 2022). Scarcity in this case is not only caused by dry seasons or limited supply. It is also shaped by high vendor prices, long queues, weak formal infrastructure, and unequal water distribution (Crow & Odaba, 2009; Jeppesen, 2025; Owino, 2026).

Figure 6. E. coli contamination rates by water source and pollution source in Kibera. Source: Nyaga et al. (2025).

Water quality is also closely tied to both flooding and scarcity. When piped water is unreliable, residents may turn to trucks, boreholes, or other alternative sources. But these sources are not always safe. Recent research (Figure 6) found E. coli in 29.2% of sampled water sources, and trucked water showed a much higher contamination rate of 75.0% (Nyaga et al., 2025). Exposed pipes, sewage intrusion, pit latrines, and open drains all add to the risk of contamination (Kariuki & Mbuvi, 1997; Harver, 2024).

In simple terms, Kibera’s water crisis works like a cycle:

• Flooding spreads contamination.
• Scarcity pushes residents toward unsafe sources.
• Poor governance makes infrastructure hard to maintain.
• Poor water quality increases disease and household vulnerability.

This means that solutions cannot focus only on “more water” or “better drainage.” They need to address the whole system together. Based on this analysis, our intervention focuses on three closely connected challenges: water scarcity, water quality, and governance. While flooding is also a major concern, our proposed solution focuses on drinking water and everyday access to water, where community-level action can be more practical and directly meaningful for residents. By working at the community level, the intervention aims to improve access to safer drinking water and strengthen local monitoring, coordination, and accountability.

2.2. Existing organizations in the Water Infrastructure in Kibera

Figure 7. Some of the different organizationsgovernment, private, and community-based- working in Kibera, Nairobi, for water security.

Nairobi’s urban water system is largely centralized under the Nairobi City Water and Sewerage Company (NCWSC), a public utility responsible for potable water and sewerage services. NCWSC is regulated by the Water Services Regulatory Board (WASREB), a state corporation under the Water Act 2002 that oversees service efficiency, affordability, sustainability, and the financial viability of Water Service Providers (WSPs). The Water Sector Trust Fund (WSTF) is a result-based national public financing system for water infrastructure in Kibera. 

Apart from these government bodies, many private organizations are also active in Kibera. Human Needs Project (HNP), We are Water Foundation, Water.org, Water and Sanitation for Urban Population (WSUP), Kenya Water for Health Organization (KWAHO), and many other organizations have provided financial and technical assistance for water infrastructure in Kibera. Community-based organizations like Shining Hope for Communities (SHOFCO) have supported the mobilization of the largest network of social groups to provide holistic support in redefining the potential of citizen-led change and needs-driven services. Similarly, multilateral and national banks like the World Bank and the African Development Bank have financially supported different water-related issues in Kibera.

Although there are many national, private, and community-based players in the water system for Kibera, private and community organizations are seen as more active and at the forefront of addressing water issues in the slum. Therefore, our proposed governance and financing systems focus on decentralizing projects, finances, and their implementation. While adding a new organization focused on Kibera water issues may seem beneficial, but in the presence of multiple organizations, it would likely add more complexity to the current governance system. Going forward, we will focus on integrating existing bodies for our proposal.

3. Proposed Interventions, Governance and Financing

Figure 8. The three water challenges targeted by this proposal.

After a careful analysis of existing water scenarios, challenges, governance and financing system, we can conclude that Kibera currently requires a stable water source and an integrated and decentralized infrastructure system to solve the water issues. Therefore, the first intervention is focused on increasing the water portfolio for Nairobi, with a dedicated element for Kibera; the Nairobi dam and the second intervention highlights the connection of the new water source to the community via different infrastructural elements; Community Infrastructure Block (CIB).

3.1. Modifying Water Portfolio: Addition of Nairobi Dam

Figure 9. Current water portfolio vs Proposed water portfolio

As shown in Figure 9, the current portfolio (Chart a) is based on reported contributions from formal surface water sources, with Ndakaini accounting for 84% of the supply, followed by Sasumua (12%) and Ruiru (4%). This structure reflects a highly centralized system that depends heavily on a single major reservoir. While efficient under stable conditions, such concentration increases vulnerability to climate variability, drought, and infrastructure disruptions.

The new portfolio (Chart b) reduces overreliance on Ndakaini while maintaining the existing surface-water system to avoid high costs. At the same time, it introduces local storage for reused and recycled water as additional components. These additions diversify the supply base, improve system flexibility, and provide buffers against both supply shocks and seasonal variability.

The proposed percentages are re-allocated as a structured representation of three key priorities: reducing concentration risk, maintaining cost feasibility by building on existing infrastructure, and incorporating currently underutilized water sources such as reuse. The comparisons illustrate how a diversified portfolio can enhance resilience without requiring a complete transformation of the existing system.

3.2. Infrastructure

3.2.1 Revitalization of Nairobi Dam for establishing recycled water system

The Nairobi Dam, located adjacent to Kibera, is a 350,000-square-meter reservoir constructed in 1953 with a capacity of approximately 98,000 cubic meters (Daily Nation, 2018 & 2026). This  Kenyan government-owned dam was originally designed as an emergency water storage facility for Nairobi. The dam also supported recreational uses such as fishing, boating, and water sports, while sustaining diverse surrounding ecosystems (Daily Nation, 2018, 2024 & 2026).

However, the dam began to deteriorate significantly after the 1998 El Niño rains, which accelerated siltation and structural stress (Daily Nation, 2026). Over time, unchecked urban expansion and informal settlements within the riparian zone contributed to severe pollution and contamination. Waste disposal, sewage inflows, and land-use mismanagement particularly along the Ngong River, which feeds into the dam have further degraded water quality.

Today, Nairobi Dam has effectively lost its original function and exists as a heavily encroached and polluted wetland. The proliferation of invasive water hyacinths signals eutrophication and declining ecological health, while the saturated and contaminated soils reflect long-term environmental neglect. What was once a vital urban resource has become a symbol of the challenges posed by rapid, unregulated urbanization and inadequate environmental governance.

Figure 12. From Left to right: 1. Seefar Apartment on the Riparian zone of Nairobi Dam (standardmedia.co.ke, 2018), 2. The polluted Ngong River that feeds into the Nairobi Dam. The river also lacks a riparian buffe (againstthecompass.com), 3. Farmers grazing cattle and farming in the Riparian zone (The Standard, 2017), 4. A multi-million-dollar building that was supposed to be demolished due to riparian reserve violations in 2018 is still standing tall (nairobinews.nation.africa, 2018).

3.2.2. Water Treatment Plant for Nairobi Dam

The proposed use of Nairobi Dam as a storage facility for recycled water necessitates prior ecological restoration and regulatory enforcement. The dam is currently highly polluted, and its surrounding soils have lost the capacity to effectively retain and filter water due to prolonged contamination. Therefore, water treatment and soil remediation are essential first steps to restore its functional capacity.

Equally important is the enforcement of riparian buffer regulations along the dam and the Ngong River and its tributaries. Kenyan land-use policy mandates a 60-meter setback from major waterbodies and a 15–30-meter setback from smaller streams to protect these sensitive ecological zones. However, widespread encroachment has compromised these buffers, contributing to pollution and environmental degradation. Now is a critical moment to enforce these regulations, as the Nairobi Dam flooding in May 2026 led to partial relocation of affected households, and there is growing public awareness around the risks of settling within riparian zones. This creates a timely policy window to formalize and implement buffer protections more effectively.

In addition, the development of a treatment facility adjacent to the dam is necessary to ensure that incoming water is adequately treated before storage. Establishing controlled inlet points would further improve water quality management for the Ngong River that flows into the dam. Finally, revitalization efforts must include community engagement and improved solid waste management systems to address ongoing pollution at its source. After proper treatment of water that already exists in the dam, this system can be further expanded for the next intervention, where community infrastructure is connected to this treatment plant.

3.2.3. Community Infrastructure Block (CIB)

The introduction of a new water source requires corresponding investment in distribution and sanitation infrastructure. This proposal builds on existing decentralized communal water systems in Kibera, where water is currently accessed through kiosk-based public water points. At present, a single water point serves approximately 100 households, depending on density and local conditions. This project expands this system into community infrastructure blocks, designed as efficient, flexible units serving 35-65 households and forming a distributed network connected to the broader recycled water portfolio.

This flexible range allows adaptation to varying spatial conditions: smaller blocks (around 35 households) minimize displacement in highly dense areas, while larger blocks (up to 65 households) improve infrastructure efficiency where space permits. Rather than imposing a uniform model, this approach supports incremental upgrading within the existing urban fabric.

Each community infrastructure block would include the following components:

a. Separate Sanitation and Shower Facilities

Most households in Kibera lack private bathrooms and rely on communal facilities. To improve hygiene and enable water reuse, toilet and shower functions will be separated. Greywater from showers will be collected and directed for treatment and reuse through the system linked to the revitalized Nairobi Dam.

b. Communal water taps

Existing kiosk-based water access is retained and formalized within each block through communal taps. These taps will incorporate regulated distribution mechanisms, such as a card-based system, to ensure equitable access and reduce informal exclusion or overuse.

c. Dual Water Storage System

Each block will  include two color-coded tanks:

• Yellow tank: Stores treated recycled water supplied from the Nairobi Dam treatment system after rehabilitation of the dam.
• Blue tank: Collects rooftop rainwater (Rainwater Harvesting) and greywater from showers. This is then reintroduced into the treatment and reuse cycle, contributing to a circular water system.

d. Aerial Pipeline Network

Given the extreme density and limited ground infrastructure in Kibera, underground systems are not feasible. Therefore, an elevated pipeline network building on initiatives from the Human Needs Project (HNP) is proposed to enable efficient water distribution and collection without disrupting existing settlements.

e. Trolley-based distribution system

Each block will have a small operations office responsible for monitoring and maintenance. Manual trolleys shall be provided to assist residents in transporting water containers. Usage is regulated and tracked through a digital system to ensure fairness and accountability in distribution.

Figure 13. Diagram showing the overall intervention for water system in Kibera

f. Enrollment, Digital Monitoring and Evaluation System

To address everyday water access, we propose a simple digital water card mechanism for equitable water distribution. This system directly responds to the challenges of water scarcity, water quality, and fragmented governance identified earlier.

Figure 14. Community-based drinking water system with digital card monitoring.

According to Figure 14, households will first be registered by local organizations such as Shining Hope for Communities (SHOFCO) or other community-based organizations (CBOs). During registration, basic information such as household size would be collected. Based on this, each household shall receive a water card linked to a daily allocation of potable water.

The system will allocate approximately 15 liters per person per day for essential uses such as drinking and cooking. For a typical four-person household, this equals about 60 liters per day. This allocation ensures a minimum level of equitable access while recognizing resource constraints.

Figure 15. Example of a smart water meter used to measure and record water usage at the point of distribution. Source: Waterscan (2024).

At the point of access, households will collect water from communal taps using their cards. A simple digital interface, such as a card reader or QR-based system, records each withdrawal (see Figure 15). In some cases, basic sensors or flow meters (Figure 15) can be installed at the tank to track the volume of water dispensed. The system will record key information including household ID, collection time, location, and estimated volume. This helps ensure that withdrawals remain within allocated limits and reduce the risk of overuse or informal diversion. If the daily quota is reached, access can be automatically restricted until the next cycle.

Each community infrastructure block will be supported by a small on-site management setup operated by a CBO. This may include a local office or attendant responsible for daily monitoring, troubleshooting, and coordination. In practice, this also helps organize queues, manage distribution times, and provide simple transport support such as shared trolleys for households carrying water.

All usage data is collected and stored digitally, either through tablets or cloud-based systems. This allows local organizations to monitor demand patterns in real time, identify shortages, detect irregular usage, and adjust supply, maintenance, or quotas when needed.

Importantly, this system focuses only on potable water. Other uses, such as washing and hygiene, are supported through separate non-potable water systems. This separation helps prioritize safe drinking water while making the overall system more feasible.

3.3. Financing and Governance

3.3.1. Multilayer Governance Structure

For a system like this to function effectively, clear roles and coordination across multiple actors are essential. Rather than relying on a single institution, the proposed model builds on a multi-level governance structure that already exists in Nairobi’s water sector.

According to Figure 16, at the city level, the Nairobi City Water and Sewerage Company (NCWSC) could play a central role as both the owner and long-term operator of major water infrastructure, including treatment facilities and pipe networks. In addition to ensuring water delivery, NCWSC will support infrastructure development by coordinating with implementing partners and overseeing construction. Alongside this, the Water Services Regulatory Board (WASREB) would provide regulatory oversight, including tariff setting and service standards. In practice, this helps maintain affordability through lifeline tariffs. This division of responsibilities between ownership and oversight helps clarify accountability and improve efficiency in infrastructure delivery.

Figure 16. Governance framework for the proposed water system.

Between these formal institutions and local communities, program-level actors will play a bridging role. Public funding bodies such as the Water Sector Trust Fund (WSTF), along with NGOs and development partners, shall provide technical support, capacity building, and implementation frameworks. These actors help translate large-scale infrastructure investments into workable, community-level systems.

At the community level, organizations such as Shining Hope for Communities (SHOFCO) or other CBOs will take on day-to-day responsibilities. Their role shall include household registration, card distribution, monitoring water collection, and maintaining local infrastructure. Because these organizations are embedded within the community, they are better positioned to manage operations, respond to issues, and build trust among residents.

Ownership

Figure 17. Ownership structure of the proposed Nairobi–Kibera water infrastructure system.

Figure 17 complements the governance framework by clarifying how ownership is distributed across the physical water system. The Kenya Government retains ownership of Nairobi Dam as the raw water source. The proposed treatment plant and pipe network are owned and coordinated by the Nairobi City Water and Sewerage Company (NCWSC), reflecting its responsibility for major infrastructure. At the local scale, Community Infrastructure Blocks (CIBs) are owned and managed through community governance structures. This arrangement separates public infrastructure ownership from community-level operation, while connecting centralized treatment with decentralized water access.

3.3.2. Blended Finance Structure

The new financing is primarily structured around development-bank-supported infrastructure investment, combined with public funding programs, NGO support, and community-level implementation. An outreach program for Philanthropies would also be included in the priority list.

At the core of the system is a pooled funding structure managed through government-led programs. International development banks, such as the World Bank through the Kenya Informal Settlements Improvement Project II (KISIP II) and the French Development Agency (AFD), would provide the main capital funding for large-scale infrastructure, including treatment facilities, storage systems, community water tanks, and distribution improvements.

Public financing sources such as the Water Sector Trust Fund (WSTF) can further support pro-poor water and sanitation investments, while organizations such as the Human Needs Project (HNP) and microfinance partners can help fund smaller-scale improvements and local system upgrades.

Figure 18. Financing framework for the proposed water system.

Rather than going directly to households, these funds will be directed to two main areas. The first is infrastructure investment, ensuring that water supply systems are physically in place and functioning. Private organizations and NGOs would support this process through engineering, construction management, technical delivery, and maintenance planning. The second is community-level implementation, where local organizations receive resources to operate and maintain the system on a daily basis.

In this model, community-based organizations (CBOs) would act as local implementers rather than primary funders. Their role will be to manage operations efficiently, using allocated resources to support monitoring, maintenance, and service delivery. This division of responsibility helps ensure that funding is used strategically, while also keeping the system grounded in local realities. This financing structure supports both initial capital investment and ongoing operation. More importantly, it aligns financial flows with governance structures, making the system more sustainable over time.

4. Benefits and Limitations

4.1. Benefits:

4.2. Limits:

Conclusion

In a nutshell, given the interconnected water challenges in Kibera, a conventional water system will not fit its context. Therefore, this proposal integrates water storage, recycling, and community-based distribution into a coordinated system to ensure everyday access to water. The strategy focuses on how water is collected, treated, stored, and accessed within daily life. By integrating water recycling from sources such as rainwater and greywater, treatment processes linked to Nairobi Dam, and community storage through local tanks, the system aims to improve both the availability and safety of water. These infrastructure elements are supported by aerial piping networks and last-mile delivery through community-managed distribution, making the system adaptable to the constraints of an informal settlement.

At the same time, a simple digital card system provides a practical mechanism for regulating access, monitoring usage, and supporting more transparent and accountable management. By aligning infrastructure with CBO-led operations, multi-level governance, and blended financing, the proposal creates a system that is not only functional but also institutionally grounded. 

Ultimately, the goal is to make water access more equitable, reliable, and safe, while remaining feasible in a resource-constrained context. More broadly, this approach reflects a key principle: addressing urban water challenges requires both infrastructure investment and better integration of water systems, governance structures, and community-based management.

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